Cover
Title
Copyright
Dedication
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
PART I: TRANSIT SYSTEMS OPERATIONS AND NETWORKS
1. 1 TRANSIT OPERATIONS AND SERVICE SCHEDULING
  1. 1.1 BASIC OPERATING ELEMENTS
  2. 1.2 INFORMATION FILES AND DATA COLLECTION: SURVEYS AND COUNTS
  3. 1.3 TRANSIT TRAVEL CHARACTERISTICS
  4. 1.4 SCHEDULING OF SERVICE
2. 2 CAPACITY, SPEED, ACCELERATED AND SPECIAL OPERATIONS
  1. 2.1 TRANSIT LINE CAPACITY
  2. 2.2 INCREASE OF TRANSIT SPEED
  3. 2.3 STOPS AND STOPPING REGIMES
  4. 2.4 ACCELERATED RAIL TRANSIT OPERATIONS WITH FIXED STOPPING SCHEDULES
  5. 2.5 SCHEDULING OF SINGLE-TRACK LINES, CIRCLE LINES, AND TRUNK LINES WITH BRANCHES
3. 3 MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION IN TRANSIT SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
  1. 3.1 APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS IN TRANSIT
  2. 3.2 CONCEPTUAL MODELS
  3. 3.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELING PROCEDURE AND APPLICATIONS
  4. 3.4 APPLICATIONS OF SIMULATION METHODOLOGY
  5. 3.5 EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND OPERATIONS RESEARCH IN TRANSIT
4. 4 TRANSIT LINES AND NETWORKS
  1. 4.1 PLANNING OBJECTIVES, PRINCIPLES, AND CONSIDERATIONS
  2. 4.2 GEOMETRY OF TRANSIT LINES
  3. 4.3 TYPES OF TRANSIT LINES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
  4. 4.4 TRANSFERS IN TRANSIT NETWORKS
  5. 4.5 TIMED TRANSFER SYSTEM NETWORKS
  6. 4.6 TRANSIT NETWORK TYPES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
  7. 4.7 ANALYSIS OF METRO NETWORK GEOMETRIC FORMS
5. 5 PLANNING OF RAIL TRANSIT STATION LOCATIONS
  1. 5.1 OBJECTIVES IN STATION LOCATION PLANNING
  2. 5.2 PASSENGER TRAVEL TIME
  3. 5.3 OTHER OBJECTIVES IN STATION LOCATION SELECTION
  4. 5.4 INTEGRATION OF OBJECTIVES
  5. 5.5 ADDITION OR CLOSING OF A STATION
  6. 5.6 AREA COVERAGE VERSUS OPERATING SPEED
  7. 5.7 STATION SPACINGS ON ACTUAL RAIL TRANSIT NETWORKS
PART II: TRANSIT AGENCY ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION
1. 6 TRANSIT AGENCY OPERATIONS, ECONOMICS, AND MARKETING
  1. 6.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF TRANSIT AGENCIES
  2. 6.2 MANAGEMENT AND PERSONNEL
  3. 6.3 TRANSIT SYSTEM STATISTICS, PERFORMANCE, AND ECONOMIC MEASURES
  4. 6.4 TRANSIT AGENCY OPERATIONS
  5. 6.5 TRANSIT SYSTEM FULL ACCESSIBILITY
  6. 6.6 INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR PASSENGERS
  7. 6.7 MARKETING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS
2. 7 TRANSIT FARES
  1. 7.1 OBJECTIVES IN TRANSIT FARE DETERMINATION
  2. 7.2 FARE COLLECTION
  3. 7.3 FARE STRUCTURES
  4. 7.4 SPECIAL HIGHER AND LOWER FARES
  5. 7.5 FARE LEVEL
3. 8 FINANCING OF TRANSIT
  1. 8.1 PRINCIPLES AND TRENDS IN FINANCING TRANSIT SERVICES
  2. 8.2 SOURCES OF LOCAL AND STATE FUNDS FOR TRANSIT
  3. 8.3 FEDERAL FUNDING OF TRANSIT
  4. 8.4 IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF TRANSIT AGENCIES
4. 9 TRANSIT OWNERSHIP, REGULATION, AND ORGANIZATION
  1. 9.1 PRIVATE TRANSIT COMPANIES AND PUBLIC TAKEOVER
  2. 9.2 OWNERSHIP AND FORMS OF TRANSIT SYSTEMS
  3. 9.3 INTEGRATION OF TRANSIT SERVICES PROVIDED BY DIFFERENT OPERATORS
  4. 9.4 REGULATION OF TRANSIT SERVICES
  5. 9.5 UNREGULATED TRANSIT SERVICES
  6. 9.6 EVOLVING FORMS OF TRANSIT OWNERSHIP, ORGANIZATION, AND MANAGEMENT
PART III: TRANSIT SYSTEMS PLANNING AND MODE SELECTION
1. 10 TRANSIT SYSTEMS PLANNING
  1. 10.1 PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION OF TRANSIT PLANNING
  2. 10.2 PLANNING PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
  3. 10.3 TRAVEL AND TRANSIT DEMAND FORECASTING
  4. 10.4 TRANSIT PLAN DEVELOPMENT, EVALUATION, AND SELECTION
  5. 10.5 REVIEW OF THE PROCESS AND TRENDS IN TRANSIT PLANNING
2. 11 ANALYSIS, EVALUATION, AND SELECTION OF TRANSIT MODES
  1. 11.1 EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF PUBLIC PROJECTS
  2. 11.2 TRANSIT MODE EVALUATIONS
  3. 11.3 DEFINITION OF THE CONDITIONS SET
  4. 11.4 FORMULATION, COMPARISON, AND SELECTION OF CANDIDATE MODES
3. 12 PLANNING AND SELECTION OF MEDIUM- AND HIGH-PERFORMANCE TRANSIT MODES
  1. 12.1 BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSIT MODES
  2. 12.2 MEDIUM-PERFORMANCE TRANSIT MODES
  3. 12.3 HIGH-PERFORMANCE TRANSIT MODES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX I: SI AND ENGLISH UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
APPENDIX II: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDIX III: DEFINITIONS OF TRANSIT SYSTEMS TERMS
APPENDIX IV: ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISE QUESTIONS
INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

List of Tables

1 TRANSIT OPERATIONS AND SERVICE SCHEDULING
1. Table 1.1 Capacity, work, and utilization concepts related to transit line operation
2. Table 1.2 Passenger comfort as a function of floor area per standee
3. Table 1.3 Transit speeds and corresponding travel times
4. Table 1.4 Summary of passenger counts and computation of person-kilometers
5. Table 1.5 Examples of scheduling computations
6. Table 1.6 Summary of runs from the diagrams in Figure 1.35
7. Table 1.7 Influence of operating speed on the schedule efficiency coefficient η_t
2 CAPACITY, SPEED, ACCELERATED AND SPECIAL OPERATIONS
1. Table 2.1 Theoretical and practical capacities of typical transit modes
2. Table 2.2 Physical and operating elements affecting TU standing times
3. Table 2.3 Comparison of capacities and related performance elements on a transit line*
4. Table 2.4 Maximum offered line capacities of transit modes
5. Table 2.5 Operating values for an example of a bus line
6. Table 2.6 Changes in operating elements due to speed increase
7. Table 2.7 Numbers of stops along a line N and stoppings by a TU n for the three stopping regimes (subscripts indicate the regimes)
8. Table 2.8 Comparison of a bus line with 320-m stop spacings with 160-m spacings
9. Table 2.9 Trip table for computations of passenger volumes on a line: a numerical example
10. Table 2.10 Performance summary for comparison of skip-stop with standard operation: rapid transit line, peak hour, policy II
11. Table 2.11 Comparison of operating data for different types of service
12. Table 2.12 Transit line characteristics for different types of local and accelerated services
13. Table 2.13 Different types of scheduling for trunk line T with branches A and B
3 MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION IN TRANSIT SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
1. Table 3.1 Alternative bus fleet compositions for peak and off-peak hours
4 TRANSIT LINES AND NETWORKS
1. Table 4.1 Relationship between access distances and service frequency
2. Table 4.2 Characteristics of networks connecting n terminals with independent and with integrated lines
3. Table 4.3 Transfer times between lines with short and long headways
4. Table 4.4 Classification of transfers by types of lines
5. Table 4.5 Metro network size and form measures and indicators
6. Table 4.6 Network topology indicators
7. Table 4.7 Different network topologies, showing their measures and indicators
8. Table 4.8 Washington Metro network measures and indicators without and with the Yellow and Green Lines
9. Table 4.9 Metro network characteristics indicators
10. Table 4.10 Items to be used for different types of metro network analysis
5 PLANNING OF RAIL TRANSIT STATION LOCATIONS
1. Table 5.1 Alternative sets of stations and their operational characteristics
2. Table 5.2 Average station spacings and network characteristics of rail transit systems
6 TRANSIT AGENCY OPERATIONS, ECONOMICS, AND MARKETING
1. Table 6.1 Basic measures of transportation process
2. Table 6.2 Example of maintenance service categories and their intervals
3. Table 6.3 Typical life lengths for rolling stock of different transit modes
4. Table 6.4 Percent distribution of trips, person-km, number of injuries, and number of fatalities among transit modes in the year 2000
5. Table 6.5 Influence of different factors upon choice of marketing strategy
6. Table 6.6 Characteristics commonly used in market segmentation
7 TRANSIT FARES
1. Table 7.1 Alternative locations for fare collection and control for different fare structures
2. Table 7.2 Review of fare collection methods and types
3. Table 7.3 Comparison of trade-offs among alternative fare-structure types and their optimal applications
4. Table 7.4 Fare elasticities by ridership groups in a hypothetical system
8 FINANCING OF TRANSIT
1. Table 8.1 Government (federal, state, and local) expenditures on transportation by mode (current $ millions)
2. Table 8.2 Government (federal, state, and local) expenditures on transportation in 1999 (current $ millions)
3. Table 8.3 Evaluation of different types of taxes for transit financing
9 TRANSIT OWNERSHIP, REGULATION, AND ORGANIZATION
1. Table 9.1 Results of transit bus service deregulation in British cities versus privatization through contracting in London
10 TRANSIT SYSTEMS PLANNING
1. Table 10.1 An example of daily trip rates for different family sizes and auto ownership rates
11 ANALYSIS, EVALUATION, AND SELECTION OF TRANSIT MODES
1. Table 11.1 Level of comfort and volume of air circulation
2. Table 11.2 Noise levels and their impacts
3. Table 11.3 Impacts of train lengths and track elements on noise level: BART system
4. Table 11.4 Air pollutants emitted by different modes on commuting trips (grams/100 prs-km)
5. Table 11.5 Basic characteristics of the compared transit systems
6. Table 11.6 Operational characteristics and system use
7. Table 11.7 Summary of comparative analysis
12 PLANNING AND SELECTION OF MEDIUM- AND HIGH-PERFORMANCE TRANSIT MODES
1. Table 12.1 Basic elements of transit modes and their technical options
2. Table 12.2 Characteristics of modes with different ROW categories
3. Table 12.3 Classification of transit modes by ROW category and guidance technology^a
4. Table 12.4 Characteristics of different transit modes
5. Table 12.5 Historical development of fully automated guided transit systems
6. Table 12.6 Comparison of regular bus, bus rapid transit, and light rail transit characteristics
7. Table 12.7 Comparison of two cities of similar size and impact of LRT introduction
8. Table 12.8 Comparison of main BRT and LRT features
9. Table 12.9 Classification of RRT, ALRT, and AGT systems by design and operation with respect to automation

List of Illustrations

1 TRANSIT OPERATIONS AND SERVICE SCHEDULING
1. Figure 1.1 Transit line, network, and station concepts. Assuming that each spacing between stations is 1 km long, the values in this network are:
2. Figure 1.2 Passenger boarding, alighting, and volume along an idealized transit line: (a) boarding and alighting distributions; (b) cumulative functions of boarding and alighting; (c) passenger volume profile.
3. Figure 1.3 Passenger boarding, alighting, and volume diagram for a transit line: (a) boarding and alighting volumes at stations; (b) cumulative boardings and alightings along the line; (c) passenger volumes transported along the line.
4. Figure 1.4 Basic transit system operating elements and performance measures.
5. Figure 1.5 Line capacity, passenger volume, and utilization factors.
6. Figure 1.6 Travel times and speeds on a transit line.
7. Figure 1.7 Passenger travel times and speeds.
8. Figure 1.8 Average passenger waiting time as a function of headway.
9. Figure 1.9 An illustration of relationships among vehicle and alignment speeds on a transit line.
10. Figure 1.10 Diagram for computation of passenger origin-destination travel time by transit.
11. Figure 1.11 Passenger volume profile by direction for different time periods (Warminster Line, Philadelphia Regional Rail System).
12. Figure 1.12 Graphical station passenger count summary: boardings, alightings, and transfers at the Munich U-Bahn stations.
13. Figure 1.13 Transit trip length distributions in several cities.
14. Figure 1.14 Typical cumulative distributions of trip lengths for different modes in a large metropolitan area.
15. Figure 1.15 Typical transit flow pattern.
16. Figure 1.16 Monthly and daily variations of transit travel: (a) monthly variations for consecutive years (Belgrade)
17. Figure 1.17 Hourly variations in transit: peaking patterns of passengers and rolling stocks: (a) variation in passenger volume by mode in Chicago
18. Figure 1.18 Three-dimensional presentation of passenger volume distribution in distance and time along the line from a suburban to the CBD terminal. (Design: Thor Haatveit.)
19. Figure 1.19 Travel of a TU in its passenger load profile along the line.
20. Figure 1.20 Graphical presentation of TUs transporting passengers along a line.
21. Figure 1.21 Three methods of adjustments of service capacity to passenger volume: variation in headways, TU consists, and length of run.
22. Figure 1.22 Definition of the passenger exchange coefficient η_x: (a) the concept of passenger exchange coefficient; (b) general case of boarding, alighting, and flow functions; (c) discrete boarding and alighting functions; (d) discrete boarding, alighting, and load functions; P_max defines the MLS.
23. Figure 1.23 Flowchart of transit scheduling.
24. Figure 1.24 Offered capacity and its utilization on a transit line with through- and short-turn TUs.
25. Figure 1.25 Hourly variations of passenger volume on a line and its scheduling periods.
26. Figure 1.26 Diagram for selection of TU size and headway for different scheduling periods.
27. Figure 1.27 Number of TUs on a line as a function of cycle speed and headway.
28. Figure 1.28 Graphical schedule for a transit line with regular and short-turn runs.
29. Figure 1.29 Real-time/travel time schedule diagram for the line from 1.28.
30. Figure 1.30 An actual time-time graphical schedule with single track sections and operational details.
31. Figure 1.31 A time-distance graphical schedule for a trunk line with two branches, A and B.
32. Figure 1.32 A graphical schedule for diametrical lines with a joint trunk.
33. Figure 1.33 San Francisco BART network and schematic presentation of its lines. Note: The scheduling is shown for the network from 1995, with later extensions as dashed lines.
34. Figure 1.34 Graphical schedule diagram for a trunk with three branches and the cross-branch line (San Francisco BART network).
35. Figure 1.35 Diagram of duty hours and run-cuts: (a) a typical diagram of duty hours; (b) run assignments for duty hours from (a).
36. Figure 1.36 Schedule efficiency coefficient η_t as a function of operating speed V_o and line length L: (a) η_t as a function of V_o for given h and L; (b) η_t as a function of L for given h and V_o.
2 CAPACITY, SPEED, ACCELERATED AND SPECIAL OPERATIONS
1. Figure 2.1 Time-distance elements of departure/arrival sequence and headway between consecutive TUs at a station.
2. Figure 2.2 Station capacities of different modes with their typical safety regimes.
3. Figure 2.3 Concepts of line capacity and station capacity.
4. Figure 2.4 Analysis of station capacity—passenger throughput.
5. Figure 2.5 Evaluation of transit speed increase.
6. Figure 2.6 Transit unit travel time for all-N_S, all-F_S, and alternative stop locations.
7. Figure 2.7 Operating time as a function of acceleration rate a for different number of stations n.
8. Figure 2.8 Operating time as a function of maximum speed v for different station spacings s.
9. Figure 2.9 Cycle time as a function of operating parameters.
10. Figure 2.10 Example 2.5: Evaluation of self-service fare-collection system (numbers correspond to those in the text).
11. Figure 2.11 Example 2.6: Evaluation of transit lane introduction (numbers correspond to those in the text).
12. Figure 2.12 The concept of the three stopping regimes along a transit line.
13. Figure 2.13 Stopping regime domains as functions of passenger volume: (a) number of stoppings for different stopping regimes; (b) operating speeds for different stopping regimes.
14. Figure 2.14 Types of accelerated transit operations: (a) skip-stop operation; (b) zonal operation; (c) express/local operation.
15. Figure 2.15 Time-distance diagram for standard (S) and skip-stop (S-S) operations.
16. Figure 2.16 Skip-stop compared with standard operation.
17. Figure 2.17 Time-distance diagram for zonal operation.
18. Figure 2.18 Line and station design for different types of express/local operations.
19. Figure 2.19 Time-distance diagrams for express/local operations on two-track lines.
20. Figure 2.20 Express/local operations on a four-track line (case 4): (a) independent running of X and L trains; (b) synchronized running of X and L trains for simultaneous transfers.
21. Figure 2.21 Offered and utilized capacities for local and skip-stop operations.
22. Figure 2.22 Offered and utilized capacities for local and zonal (two-zone) operations.
23. Figure 2.23 Offered and utilized capacities for local and zonal (four-zone) operations.
24. Figure 2.24 Offered and utilized capacities for local and express operations.
25. Figure 2.25 Line with single- and double-track sections and four meeting points.
26. Figure 2.26 Time-distance diagram for the single track line iii from Figure 2.25 operating with minimum headway and five TUs.
27. Figure 2.27 Relationships among operating speed, headway, and distance between passing sidings on single-track lines.
28. Figure 2.28 Relationships among line length, headway, number of TUs, and operating speed on circle lines.
29. Figure 2.29 Selected cases of different trunk-branch volumes, train consists, and headways.
30. Figure 2.30 San Francisco LRT network operation: coupling/uncoupling of TUs at junction points.
31. Figure 2.31 Trunk with branches line schedules: (a) separate presentation at branches; (b) joint diagram for branches; (c) operations with the same and inversed TU sequences; (d) case with Δt = h.
3 MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION IN TRANSIT SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
1. Figure 3.1 Systems methodology for project planning and design.
2. Figure 3.2 The procedure for theoretical modeling.
3. Figure 3.3 Consequences of busway conversion into a HOV roadway.
4. Figure 3.4 Estimation of the value of reliability increase in transit services.
5. Figure 3.5 Optimum vehicle life for minimum direct costs.
6. Figure 3.6 Operator and passenger costs as functions of transit unit capacity.
7. Figure 3.7 Analysis for the selection of the optimal bus type.
8. Figure 3.8 Transit unit delay propagation over time and distance.
4 TRANSIT LINES AND NETWORKS
1. Figure 4.1 Acceptance of access distances for different transit services by mode of access. Note: Walking distance curves are approximately scaled; K+R and P+R vary greatly with local conditions.
2. Figure 4.2 Area coverage by rapid transit and LRT networks in Boston.
3. Figure 4.3 The Paris Metro network: 14 independent lines.
4. Figure 4.4 Relationship between line spacing and frequency of service for a fixed total number of bus trips F in a corridor.
5. Figure 4.5 Alternative radial line lengths in suburbs: (a) minimum length trunk with extensive feeders; (b) maximum length trunk with lateral feeders; (c) trunk incorporates two branches; feeders complement them.
6. Figure 4.6 Types of bus routings: (a) circuitous routing at the end of the route: acceptable; (b) circuitous routing at midroute: unacceptable; (c) express complementing local route.
7. Figure 4.7 A theoretical transit network with independent and with integrated line operations.
8. Figure 4.8 Schematic layout of the contiguous Division A network in New York City.
9. Figure 4.9 Typical light rail transit integrated network in center city: Stuttgart.
10. Figure 4.10 Geometric forms of transit lines.
11. Figure 4.11 The Moscow Metropolitan network.
12. Figure 4.12 U-Bahn (rapid transit) and simultaneous transfer stations in Hamburg.
13. Figure 4.13 Seoul, South Korea, metro map.
14. Figure 4.14 Radial transit lines: trunk with branches and with feeders: (a) trunk with branches; (b) trunk with feeders.
15. Figure 4.15 Change from an extensive bus network into an intensive, more efficient and attractive LRT-bus network (Sacramento, CA).
16. Figure 4.16 Metro station for simultaneous transfers between trains on two weaving lines.
17. Figure 4.17 Two-station Y junction with across-platform transfers for all movements (Hong Kong MTR—left-hand driving): (a) distribution of transfers; (b) layout of tracks and platforms.
18. Figure 4.18 Station layout and schedule for local/express services with simultaneous transfers: (a) line layout and travel pattern for a typical passenger’s trip; (b) four-track with local (L) and express (X) operations; (c) two-track line with local (L) and express (X) operations; (d) graphical schedule of synchronized local/express operations.
19. Figure 4.19 Unifocal TTS network.
20. Figure 4.20 Planning a five-line TTS for pulse headways of 15 and 20 minutes.
21. Figure 4.21 Bifocal TTS network.
22. Figure 4.22 Concepts of staggered and simultaneous pulsing in a bifocal network: (a) layout: connector and radials; (b) staggered pulsing between A and B focal points; (c) simultaneous pulsing at A and B focal points.
23. Figure 4.23 Triangular TTS network with simultaneous pulsing.
24. Figure 4.24 Clock-type diagrams showing two types of line schedules at a transit center: (a) independent line schedules; (b) TTS schedule.
25. Figure 4.25 Integrated suburban network: rapid transit with surface feeders.
26. Figure 4.26 Typical radial regional rail network: Metra in Chicago.
27. Figure 4.27 The Munich S-Bahn (regional rail) network.
28. Figure 4.28 A radial rapid transit network with CBD distribution loop: Chicago.
29. Figure 4.29 Light rail, rapid transit, and regional rail network in Philadelphia.
30. Figure 4.30 Miami Downtown People Mover as a feeder to Metrorail.
31. Figure 4.31 Cologne (Köln) LRT: a radial-circumferential LRT network.
32. Figure 4.32 The Mexico City Metro network.
33. Figure 4.33 Radial rail transit networks: (a) typical regional rail networks; (b) radial metro networks with different layouts.
34. Figure 4.34 Rail transit line relationships and forms: (a) network with independent and interconnected lines; (b) rectangular pattern rail transit networks.
35. Figure 4.35 Area-wide metro network of lines with operational efficiency.
36. Figure 4.36 Network schematics: stations and spacings (nodes and arcs).
37. Figure 4.37 Schematics of lines in a transit network: (a) network of two independent lines; (b) network with overlapping lines.
38. Figure 4.38 Washington Metro network, highlighting the Green and Yellow Lines. (This 2003 network has a few minor line and station modifications from the 1980 network used in the analysis.)
5 PLANNING OF RAIL TRANSIT STATION LOCATIONS
1. Figure 5.1 Passenger travel time as a function of station density.
2. Figure 5.2 Transit line section model.
3. Figure 5.3 Model of a transit line with cumulative boarding.
4. Figure 5.4 Optimal station locations for minimum travel time with different cumulative boarding distributions.
5. Figure 5.5 Diagrams for practical planning of rapid transit stations: (a) diagram of boarding (b_i), alighting (a_i), and passenger flow (p_i). In this case, i = A, B, . . . , N; (b) Stop line (b_i + a_i) and Go line (p_i−1 + a_i).
6. Figure 5.6 Area coverage as a function of station density.
7. Figure 5.7 Analysis of operating speed on different sections along a transit line.
8. Figure 5.8 Total cost (investment and operating) of stations as a function of their density along a line with fixed length.
9. Figure 5.9 Conceptual diagram of integration of objectives for optimal station density.
10. Figure 5.10 Effects of adding a station to an existing rapid transit line.
11. Figure 5.11 Stopping patterns and time-distance diagrams for different station sets with regular and skip-stop operations.
6 TRANSIT AGENCY OPERATIONS, ECONOMICS, AND MARKETING
1. Figure 6.1 Organization chart of a transit agency (based on the San Francisco BART District).
2. Figure 6.2 Steps for achieving higher transit reliability and its benefits.
3. Figure 6.3 Classification of vehicle maintenance procedure.
4. Figure 6.4 ITS technologies on board the vehicle and at the station.
7 TRANSIT FARES
1. Figure 7.1 Two vicious circles caused by fare increases:
2. Figure 7.2 Schematic presentation of alternative fare structures: (a) flat fare; (b) zonal fare; (c) sectional fare.
3. Figure 7.3 Fare as a function of trip length under different fare structure: (a) fare as a function of trip length; (b) fare per unit of travel distance as a function of trip length.
4. Figure 7.4 Conceptual diagram of ridership and fare revenue as functions of fare level.
5. Figure 7.5 Impact of fare increase on ridership and revenues in different fare level domains (conceptual).
8 FINANCING OF TRANSIT
1. Figure 8.1 Summary of federal, state, and local government transportation expenditures by mode.
2. Figure 8.2 Ratio of government revenues to expenditures by transportation mode.
3. Figure 8.3 Sources of transit operating funds, 1975–2000.
4. Figure 8.4 Percent distribution of transit operating funds among sources, 1975–2000.
5. Figure 8.5 Sources of transit capital funds, 1988–2000.
6. Figure 8.6 Percent distribution of transit capital funds among sources, 1988–2000.
7. Figure 8.7 Distribution of sources of transit operating and capital funds, 1990 and 2000: (a) operating funds; (b) capital funds.
9 TRANSIT OWNERSHIP, REGULATION, AND ORGANIZATION
1. Figure 9.1 Conceptual model of transit service provision.
2. Figure 9.2 Concept of system efficiency, service quality, and transit system performance.
10 TRANSIT SYSTEMS PLANNING
1. Figure 10.1 Sequence of basic steps in comprehensive urban transportation planning.
2. Figure 10.2 Technical procedure of long-range urban transportation planning.
3. Figure 10.3 Four-level planning sequence from urban transport system to individual projects.
4. Figure 10.4 Transit planning process.
5. Figure 10.5 Travel time contours from the Metro Center Station on the Washington Metro network.
6. Figure 10.6 Sequence of steps in travel volume forecasting.
7. Figure 10.7 Modal distribution curve for two alternative modes.
8. Figure 10.8 Procedure for transit plan development.
9. Figure 10.9 Metro area coverage in the central area of Washington, DC.
10. Figure 10.10 Procedure for preliminary engineering design of a light rail transit system.
11 ANALYSIS, EVALUATION, AND SELECTION OF TRANSIT MODES
1. Figure 11.1 Types of comparisons of transit modes (M) for different conditions sets or areas (A).
2. Figure 11.2 Comparison of modes based on their costs, disregarding differences in level of service and passenger attraction.
3. Figure 11.3 Conversion of goals and local conditions set into transit system requirements.
4. Figure 11.4 Hourly equivalent noise level as a function of train speed and headway.
5. Figure 11.5 Conceptual presentation of modes defined as RTS.
6. Figure 11.6 Transit mode/system selection procedure.
12 PLANNING AND SELECTION OF MEDIUM- AND HIGH-PERFORMANCE TRANSIT MODES
1. Figure 12.1 Different types of transit lines and networks: (a) trunk line with branches, direct service to center city, poor connections between suburban area points—transfers not accommodated; (b) trunk line with frequent, regular service, usually rail; feeders with transfers to the trunk, but not among feeders; (c) rail radial and circumferential lines with coordinated bus TTS at major stations: an intermodal network.
2. Figure 12.2 Performance-cost packages (PCPs) of different generic classes of transit modes.
3. Figure 12.3 Graphical presentation of the physical and technological features of different transit modes.
4. Figure 12.4 Increasing performance and labor productivity of tramways/LRT through vehicle and operational innovations from 1950 to present.

PREFACE

Transportation, being one of the basic functions in urbanized areas, influences the form of cities and their livability—their economic, social and environmental characteristics. The usage of transit systems, or urban public transportation, decreased considerably when auto ownership began to grow. However, in recent decades many cities have made large investments in transit to reverse this trend. Experience has shown that transit has great significance for reducing traffic congestion, offering alternative means of travel, and contributing greatly to the quality of urban life. In developing countries, the role of transit is even greater than in the industrialized countries because it serves a greater number of people and offers capacities that highway systems cannot provide in rapidly growing cities.

In recent years, transit systems have benefitted from many physical and operational innovations. Yet literature on transit systems physical characteristics, planning, mode selection, and urban transportation policies is rather limited. Particularly missing are publications that present theoretical concepts as well as practical methods for their implementation in real world.

It has been the intention of this author to write a ‘‘transit trilogy’’—a set of books on three major aspects of transit and urban transportation: transit systems, operations, and transit role in cities. The first book in this series was Urban Public Transportation Systems and Technology (Prentice-Hall, 1981), which presents a systematic classification and definitions of urban transportation modes, with detailed descriptions and their characteristics. Many concepts and terms from those definitions have become standard in the field. That book is now out of print, but the demand for it suggests there is a need for an updated edition. That will be the author’s next task.

A broad review of urban transportation policies, systems, and impacts of the selection of private versus public transportation modes on cities is presented in Transportation for Livable Cities (CUPR Press, Rutgers, 1999). The relationships among the private automobile, transit, and other modes are systematically reviewed. The importance of transit for livability of cities is given particular attention. This book also defines and discusses such important contemporary concepts as balanced transportation and livability of cities.

The present book covers transit system operations and planning and represents a logical continuation of the first book. Thus, it falls between the preceding two books and completes the transit trilogy.

This book is organized in three parts. Part I, Chapters 1 to 5, covers transit systems operations and networks. Chapter 1 defines concepts of transit systems operations and presents the methodology for scheduling of transit units (vehicles) and personnel (run-cutting) for transit lines. Chapter 2 covers a number of aspects of transit operations, including line capacity, transit speeds, types of stops, accelerated services, and scheduling for special geometric forms of lines. Chapter 3 presents an introduction to applications of modeling and optimization in the analysis of transit systems operations and design. Chapter 4 gives an extensive review and analysis of transit lines and networks: their forms, characteristics, and methods of evaluation. Chapter 5 describes determination of the number and locations of stations on rail transit lines.

Part II, Chapters 6 through 9, discusses transit agency operations, economics, and organization. Chapter 6 presents transit system management and operation, including internal organization of agencies, relations with personnel (labor) and passengers, accessibility requirements, information, and marketing. Chapter 7 covers fares: their types and classification, characteristics, and methods of collection. Chapter 8 reviews methods and sources of transit financing. Role of different government levels in financing and efforts to increase efficiency of operations are also discussed. Chapter 9 presents an overview of types of transit organizations and government regulation, including a review of numerous recent innovative concepts in public-private cooperation and separation of policy bodies from transit operating public agencies or private companies.

Part III of the book, Chapters 10 through 12, focuses on transit system planning. Chapter 10 discusses the process and techniques of transit planning. Unlike many academic books on planning that focus on travel demand estimation only, this chapter covers the entire planning process, from the establishment of goals and policies to demand estimation, transit mode selection, and network design. Chapters 11 and 12 focus on the important phase of transit planning—selection of transit mode. A theoretical basis and general methodology of mode selection in Chapter 11 is followed in Chapter 12 by a systematic comparison of various aspects of transit modes. This part of planning—comparison and selection of transit modes—is of great relevance and importance for many cities around the world.

Each chapter has a set of exercises, including numerical as well as conceptual and other essay-type questions. References and relevant further reading are also given for each chapter. A bibliography of selected books relevant to the overall contents of the book is given at the end of the book.

Each equation in this book is numbered and accompanied by definitions of dimensions of all symbols. In Chapters 1 through 4, which have many equations, lists of symbols are included with their definitions.

This book, like its predecessors, is written with SI measures, the system that has been adopted in all countries except the United States. In this country, Congress mandated the transition to SI, but then, when this effort began to be implemented by many agencies, particularly the U.S. Department of Transportation, Congress reversed itself by canceling the previous requirements. This important effort to replace the obsolete English system of measures by the standard contemporary one was thus discontinued. For readers not yet familiar with the SI, conversion factors are presented in a very convenient form in Appendix I.

To facilitate understanding of the numerous abbreviations used in the book, these are listed and defined in Appendix II. Appendix III presents definitions of selected terms related to transit systems. Answers to selected exercises are given in Appendix IV. The answers are brief or include only selected ones from many required computed numbers. This allows the users to see whether their computational procedure is correct, and yet requires computation of all results.

Like the previous two books in the transit trilogy, this book is intended to introduce theoretical concepts and relationships in transit systems followed by practical methodologies for operations, planning, and analysis. The combination of theoretical basis and direct applications makes the book useful both in academic circles as well as to persons planning and operating transit systems. The intended readers thus include graduate and upper undergraduate students of transportation engineering and planning courses at universities and in continuing education courses, as well as transit planners and operators in transit agencies, metropolitan planning organizations, city governments, consulting firms, public interest organizations, and others.

The international orientation and coverage of the first two books found a very good response from the readers in many countries, and it is continued in this book. Although focused mostly on the United States and other industrialized countries, many examples and presented methodologies are applicable to any city, in developed as well as in developing countries, always, naturally, with required consideration of local factors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of many individuals and organizations in preparing materials, writing, and reviewing the text for this book, while retaining the responsibility for the accuracy of its contents.

I want to thank many colleagues who have reviewed chapters of this manuscript and provided valuable comments, corrections, and additional materials. All chapters were reviewed by Wolfgang S. Homburger, now retired from the Institute of Transportation Studies at the University of California in Berkeley. He applied his diligent, detailed, and constructive pen, well known throughout the field of transit and traffic engineering, with which he edited numerous books. Hans Leopold, the author’s colleague from Hamburg, applied his deep understanding of the field through precise reviews and constructive suggestions. Jeffrey M. Casello, who first studied these materials in my courses, then read all the text with particular attention to students’ points of view.

Most of the chapters were also reviewed by Thor K. Haatveit, a leading public transport official in Norway, who had also assisted in developing technical materials when he was a graduate student at the University of Pennsylvania. Similar contributions were made by Professor Shinya Kikuchi, Richard M. Stanger, and Dr. Eric C. Bruun. Angel Molinero contributed his inventive skills to develop analyses and then used them also in his excellent book on this topic published in Mexico. Many other author’s students contributed to this text during their studies through their course papers and research on topics selected for the materials prepared for this book over a number of years. Professors Yong Eun Shin, Nikola Krstanoski, and Young-Jae Lee deserve particular credit and my gratitude in this respect.

Louis J. Gambaccini, a leading transit official, gave valuable comments on chapters on transit management, financing, and organization. Professor George M. Smerk reviewed the chapter on transit organization and policy. Professor David E. Boyce made valuable contributions through many discussions about the transportation planning process (Chapter 10). John Schumann provided on many occasions, extensive and reliable materials used in this book. Takis Salpeas gave excellent insights into various phases of planning and operations of major investment projects by several leading transit agencies (BART and WMATA).

I benefitted greatly from numerous professional discussions, comments on the topics in this book, and information on transit in different countries during the years of writing this book by Professors Günter Girnau and Adolf Müller-Hellmann (Germany), Hideo Nakamura (Japan), Franco de Falco and Antonio Musso (Italy), Heinrich Brändli (Switzerland), Tony Ridley and Tony Young (UK), Nenad Jovanović, Snežana Filipović, and the late Radovan Banković (Yugoslavia-Serbia), Jean-Claude Ziv (France), and many others.

On many occasions, I obtained valuable information, materials, exhibits, and data from several transit associations: American Public Transportation Association (APTA) (U.S.), Associação Nacional de Transporte Pùblicos (ANTP) (Brazil), Verband Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen (VDV) (Germany), and transit agencies: BART and Muni (San Francisco), BVG (Berlin), NYCT (New York), OS (Oslo), SEPTA (Philadelphia), TRTA (Tokyo), WMATA (Washington), and many others.

I want to mention especially the support and inspiration I enjoyed through several decades of cooperation with the International Association of Public Transport (UITP, Brussels) and its present President Dr. Wolfgang Meyer and General Secretary Johannes Rat. Similarly influential have been my contacts with Professor Günter Girnau in Cologne. Our discussions about many topics, from the classical materials on transit operations produced by the late Dr. Friedrich Lehner through their continuous enhancements to current issues have been very helpful in my keeping up with the latest trends and developments in transit and urban transportation around the world.

During the writing of this book, I have enjoyed enthusiastic support from my former students, individually as well as through their organization, TSEAC, which has also supported the entire Program of Transportation Systems Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. I feel that there is mutual support between my writing of these books and the efforts of dozens of my former students on improving transportation in many cities around the world. That feeling and my gratitude to them resulted in the dedication of this book.

Finally, during the most concentrated effort to complete this manuscript, I enjoyed high-quality, precise, and dedicated work by my team of assistants/doctoral students: Dr. Jeffrey M. Casello, Mario Semmler, Huafang Cui, and Christopher Puchalsky. They deserve my sincere thanks.

On the personal side, the large multiyear effort of writing this book was continuously supported and intellectually enhanced by my wife Dr. Radmila Vuchic, as well as by our children—Monika, Boris, Lili, and Victor—and their families, who readily accepted sacrifices when ‘‘Dad had to write the book.’’ The husband/father deeply appreciates this family’s understanding and support.

Vukan R. Vuchic
University of Pennsylvania

URBAN TRANSIT

OPERATIONS, PLANNING, AND ECONOMICS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PART I
TRANSIT SYSTEMS OPERATIONS AND NETWORKS