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Preface xv <p>Acknowledgements xix</p> <p>Abbreviations xxi</p> <p><b>1 Introduction: defining nature 1</b></p> <p>1.1 How little we know 1</p> <p>1.2 Pressing questions 2</p> <p>1.3 The hierarchy of nature 2</p> <p>1.4 Biodiversity 4</p> <p>1.5 Myths to bust 4</p> <p>1.6 Further information 5</p> <p>1.6.1 Recommended reading 5</p> <p>References 5</p> <p><b>Part I: Species</b></p> <p><b>2 What is a species? 9</b></p> <p>2.1 The big question 9</p> <p>2.2 Species concepts 10</p> <p>2.2.1 Nominalistic 10</p> <p>2.2.2 Morphological 11</p> <p>2.2.3 Biological 12</p> <p>2.2.4 Phylogenetic 13</p> <p>2.2.5 Genetic 14</p> <p>2.3 Solving the riddle 16</p> <p>2.4 Coda: Species richness 17</p> <p>2.5 Conclusions 17</p> <p>2.5.1 Recommended reading 17</p> <p>2.5.2 Questions for the future 17</p> <p>References 17</p> <p><b>3 The history of life 19</b></p> <p>3.1 The big question 19</p> <p>3.2 Sources of evidence 19</p> <p>3.2.1 The fossil record 19</p> <p>3.2.2 Molecular evidence 20</p> <p>3.3 A brief history of diversity 20</p> <p>3.4 Uneven diversity 24</p> <p>3.5 Conclusions 25</p> <p>3.5.1 Recommended reading 26</p> <p>3.5.2 Questions for the future 26</p> <p>References 26</p> <p><b>4 How many species are there? 29</b></p> <p>4.1 The big question 29</p> <p>4.2 How can we not know? 29</p> <p>4.3 Discovery rates 30</p> <p>4.4 Scaling 32</p> <p>4.5 Sampling-based methods 33</p> <p>4.6 Other organisms 36</p> <p>4.7 Wrapping up 36</p> <p>4.8 Conclusions 37</p> <p>4.8.1 Recommended reading 38</p> <p>4.8.2 Questions for the future 38</p> <p>References 38</p> <p><b>Part II: Diversity</b></p> <p><b>5 Measuring diversity 43</b></p> <p>5.1 The big question 43</p> <p>5.2 Scales of diversity 43</p> <p>5.3 Species richness 43</p> <p>5.4 Believing in estimates 46</p> <p>5.5 A SAD story 47</p> <p>5.6 Diversity of species 49</p> <p>5.7 Other measures of diversity 51</p> <p>5.8 𝛽 diversity 53</p> <p>5.9 Case study: The Binatang project 54</p> <p>5.10 Conclusions 57</p> <p>5.10.1 Recommended reading 57</p> <p>5.10.2 Questions for the future 57</p> <p>References 57</p> <p><b>6 Niches 61</b></p> <p>6.1 The big question 61</p> <p>6.2 Historical background 61</p> <p>6.3 Back to basics 63</p> <p>6.4 Birth and death rates 63</p> <p>6.5 The ZNGI 66</p> <p>6.6 Impact vectors 67</p> <p>6.7 Supply points 67</p> <p>6.8 Coexistence 68</p> <p>6.9 The evidence 71</p> <p>6.10 Implications 73</p> <p>6.11 Conclusions 76</p> <p>6.11.1 Recommended reading 77</p> <p>6.11.2 Questions for the future 77</p> <p>References 77</p> <p><b>7 Patterns in species richness 79</b></p> <p>7.1 The big question 79</p> <p>7.2 Area 79</p> <p>7.3 Local and regional species richness 81</p> <p>7.4 Local patterns in species richness 85</p> <p>7.4.1 Elevation 85</p> <p>7.4.2 Depth 88</p> <p>7.4.3 Peninsulas and Bays 88</p> <p>7.4.4 Isolation 89</p> <p>7.4.5 Mid-Domain Effects 89</p> <p>7.5 Congruence 89</p> <p>7.6 Assembling a model 90</p> <p>7.7 Conclusions 91</p> <p>7.7.1 Recommended reading 91</p> <p>7.7.2 Questions for the future 92</p> <p>References 92</p> <p><b>8 Drivers of diversity 95</b></p> <p>8.1 The big question 95</p> <p>8.2 Coexistence or co-occurrence? 95</p> <p>8.3 Energy and resources 95</p> <p>8.4 Diversity begets diversity 101</p> <p>8.4.1 Heterogeneity in space 101</p> <p>8.4.2 Heterogeneity in time 103</p> <p>8.5 Disturbance 104</p> <p>8.6 Top-down control 105</p> <p>8.7 Expanding our model 109</p> <p>8.8 Conclusions 110</p> <p>8.8.1 Recommended reading 110</p> <p>8.8.2 Questions for the future 111</p> <p>References 111</p> <p><b>9 Does diversity matter? 113</b></p> <p>9.1 The big question 113</p> <p>9.2 Ecosystems 113</p> <p>9.3 What shape is the relationship? 115</p> <p>9.4 Field experiments 117</p> <p>9.5 Other measures of diversity 121</p> <p>9.6 Multifunctionality 122</p> <p>9.7 The real world 125</p> <p>9.8 Species richness and productivity 126</p> <p>9.9 Conclusions 127</p> <p>9.9.1 Recommended reading 127</p> <p>9.9.2 Questions for the future 128</p> <p>References 128</p> <p><b>Part III: Communities</b></p> <p><b>10 Organisation at the community scale 133</b></p> <p>10.1 The big question 133</p> <p>10.2 Definitions 133</p> <p>10.3 Communities in the field 134</p> <p>10.4 Quantitative approaches 135</p> <p>10.5 Community structure 137</p> <p>10.6 Food chains 140</p> <p>10.7 Food webs 142</p> <p>10.8 Complexity and stability 145</p> <p>10.9 Trophic cascades 147</p> <p>10.10 SAD again 148</p> <p>10.11 Complex systems 151</p> <p>10.12 Unified neutral theory 153</p> <p>10.13 Metabolic theory of ecology 155</p> <p>10.14 Conclusions 156</p> <p>10.14.1 Recommended reading 157</p> <p>10.14.2 Questions for the future 157</p> <p>References 157</p> <p><b>11 Stability 161</b></p> <p>11.1 The big question 161</p> <p>11.2 Stable states 161</p> <p>11.3 Changing environments 164</p> <p>11.4 Hysteresis 165</p> <p>11.5 Predicting changes 167</p> <p>11.6 Coral reefs 169</p> <p>11.7 Shifting baselines 170</p> <p>11.8 Conclusions 173</p> <p>11.8.1 Recommended reading 174</p> <p>11.8.2 Questions for the future 175</p> <p>11.9 Coda: the seduction of Gaia 175</p> <p>References 176</p> <p><b>12 Changes through time 179</b></p> <p>12.1 The big question 179</p> <p>12.2 Succession 179</p> <p>12.3 Succession and niche theory 180</p> <p>12.4 Examples of succession 182</p> <p>12.5 Disturbance 184</p> <p>12.6 Modelling succession 185</p> <p>12.7 Regeneration 187</p> <p>12.8 Plants and animals 188</p> <p>12.9 Case study: Mpala, Kenya 188</p> <p>12.10 Conclusions 190</p> <p>12.10.1 Recommended reading 190</p> <p>12.10.2 Questions for the future 190</p> <p>References 191</p> <p><b>13 Changes through space 193</b></p> <p>13.1 The big question 193</p> <p>13.2 Community assembly 193</p> <p>13.2.1 Competitive exclusion 194</p> <p>13.2.2 Historical processes 196</p> <p>13.2.3 Habitat checkerboards 197</p> <p>13.2.4 Chance and contingency 198</p> <p>13.3 Metacommunities 199</p> <p>13.4 Dispersal limitation 204</p> <p>13.5 Combining environment and dispersal 208</p> <p>13.6 Conclusions 210</p> <p>13.6.1 Recommended reading 210</p> <p>13.6.2 Questions for the future 210</p> <p>References 210</p> <p><b>Part IV: Biogeography</b></p> <p><b>14 Global patterns of life 215</b></p> <p>14.1 The big question 215</p> <p>14.2 Biogeography 215</p> <p>14.3 Phytogeography 217</p> <p>14.4 Ecoregions 222</p> <p>14.5 Empirical approaches 223</p> <p>14.6 The oceans 225</p> <p>14.7 Fresh water 228</p> <p>14.8 Conclusions 228</p> <p>14.8.1 Recommended reading 229</p> <p>14.8.2 Questions for the future 229</p> <p>References 229</p> <p><b>15 Regional species richness 233</b></p> <p>15.1 The big question 233</p> <p>15.2 Climate and productivity 234</p> <p>15.3 Other processes 236</p> <p>15.4 Scale and productivity 238</p> <p>15.5 Latitudinal gradients 240</p> <p>15.6 Centres of origin 243</p> <p>15.7 Regional species–area relationships 244</p> <p>15.8 Confounding effects 244</p> <p>15.9 Conclusions 245</p> <p>15.9.1 Recommended reading 246</p> <p>15.9.2 Questions for the future 246</p> <p>References 246</p> <p><b>16 Latitudinal gradients 249</b></p> <p>16.1 The big question 249</p> <p>16.2 Hypotheses 249</p> <p>16.3 Geographic area 249</p> <p>16.4 Climatic stability 251</p> <p>16.5 Productivity 252</p> <p>16.6 Niche size 253</p> <p>16.7 Evolutionary speed 254</p> <p>16.8 Out of the tropics 257</p> <p>16.9 Conclusions 261</p> <p>16.9.1 Recommended reading 262</p> <p>16.9.2 Questions for the future 262</p> <p>References 262</p> <p><b>17 Earth history 265</b></p> <p>17.1 The big question 265</p> <p>17.2 Geological history 265</p> <p>17.3 Continental drift 266</p> <p>17.4 Echoes of Pangæa 269</p> <p>17.5 Climatic effects 272</p> <p>17.6 Ice ages 274</p> <p>17.7 Sea level 278</p> <p>17.8 Extinctions 278</p> <p>17.9 Conclusions 281</p> <p>17.9.1 Recommended reading 283</p> <p>17.9.2 Questions for the future 283</p> <p>References 283</p> <p><b>18 Dispersal 287</b></p> <p>18.1 The big question 287</p> <p>18.2 Range expansion 287</p> <p>18.3 Mechanisms of dispersal 289</p> <p>18.4 Barriers 290</p> <p>18.5 Case studies 292</p> <p>18.5.1 New Zealand 292</p> <p>18.5.2 Madagascar 295</p> <p>18.6 Conclusions 299</p> <p>18.6.1 Recommended reading 300</p> <p>18.6.2 Questions for the future 300</p> <p>References 300</p> <p><b>19 Life on islands 303</b></p> <p>19.1 The big question 303</p> <p>19.2 Types of island 303</p> <p>19.3 Island biotas 305</p> <p>19.4 Evolution of endemics 305</p> <p>19.5 Size changes 307</p> <p>19.6 Reproduction and dispersal 310</p> <p>19.7 Super-generalists 311</p> <p>19.8 Endemic communities 312</p> <p>19.9 Disharmony 312</p> <p>19.10 Assembly rules 314</p> <p>19.11 Island species richness 314</p> <p>19.12 The equilibrium model of island biogeography 317</p> <p>19.13 Testing the theory 319</p> <p>19.14 Conclusions 320</p> <p>19.14.1 Recommended reading 320</p> <p>19.14.2 Questions for the future 320</p> <p>References 320</p> <p><b>20 Reinventing islands 323</b></p> <p>20.1 The big question 323</p> <p>20.2 A critique of EMIB 323</p> <p>20.3 Rival hypotheses 326</p> <p>20.4 Disturbance 326</p> <p>20.5 Relaxation 329</p> <p>20.6 Extinctions 331</p> <p>20.7 Invasions 331</p> <p>20.8 A new theory? 332</p> <p>20.9 Evolution 333</p> <p>20.10 Conclusions 338</p> <p>20.10.1 Recommended reading 338</p> <p>20.10.2 Questions for the future 338</p> <p>References 338</p> <p><b>21 What is a natural system? 341</b></p> <p>21.1 The big question 341</p> <p>21.2 Lessons learnt 342</p> <p>21.2.1 Ecological processes are scale dependent 342</p> <p>21.2.2 All interactions are nested 342</p> <p>21.2.3 There is no such thing as the balance of nature 342</p> <p>21.2.4 Everything is contingent 343</p> <p>21.3 Processes not systems 343</p> <p>References 344</p> <p><b>Appendix A Diversity analysis case study: Butterfly conservation in the Rocky Mountains 345</b></p> <p>A.1 Software resources 345</p> <p>A.2 Calculations 346</p> <p>A.3 Synthesis 350</p> <p>A.4 Conclusions 351</p> <p>References 352</p> <p>Glossary 353</p> <p>Index 359</p>

<p><strong>Dr Markus Eichhorn</strong>, School of Biology, University of Nottingham, UK.

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